Alliances and Hostilities: The Nature of Interactions Between Native American Tribes Before European Encounter

The interactions between Native American tribes in the pre-Columbian era were complex and diverse, shaped by their shared and varying environments, social structures, and cultural beliefs. These interactions often centered on territorial disputes, resource competition, alliances, and strategic dealings.

Warfare and Blood Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire

One of the most striking examples of intense interaction is found in the rise and fall of the Aztec Empire. Despite the often-negative portrayal of the Aztec practices, particularly their human sacrifices to Huitzilopochtli, it is crucial to understand the context of their actions. The Aztecs, led by figures like Motecuhzoma II and his successor, Cuauhtemoc, established a vast empire through strategic alliances and brutal military power.

A significant moment in Aztec history is the fall of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, to the Spanish conquistadors under Hernán Cortés. What is often overlooked is the contribution of indigenous allies, such as the Tlascalans, Huejotzingans, and others, who found themselves at odds with the Mexicas. This alliance with the Spanish and other indigenous groups led to the eventual downfall of the Aztecs and the establishment of a new order—Mexico, as a land freed from Aztec oppression.

Temporary and Long-Term Alliances

Interactions were not solely characterized by violent conflicts. Many tribes formed temporary and long-term alliances for mutual benefit. One such alliance was the Iroquois Confederacy in what is now the northeastern United States. Formed by the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations, the Iroquois Federation lasted for centuries and played a significant role in the region's politics and warfare.

In the American Southwest, the Comanche and Kiowa formed a powerful alliance, creating the largest native empire in North America. This alliance showcases the strategic and political acumen of indigenous leaders, who could unite diverse groups for a common cause. Other alliances, such as those between the Aztecs and their allies, the Acolhua and Tepaneca, reveal the intricate interplay of power dynamics and mutual interests.

Beliefs and Behavioral Norms

The nature of interactions between Native American tribes can also be understood in the context of their cultural beliefs and behavioral norms. The Aztecs' practice of human sacrifice, for instance, was a religious ritual that played a crucial role in maintaining social order and appeasing their gods. This practice was not unique to the Aztecs but was common among many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Maya and Incas.

John C. Ewers, an American ethnologist, noted that inter-tribal warfare was much more widespread and destructive than conflicts between indigenes and Europeans. He stated, "In unknown centuries of inter-tribal warfare, it is deemed that Amerindians inhumanely tortured, murdered, scalped and otherwise mistreated and butchered far more of their own kind in ceaseless rivalry and endless feuding than in all of the conflicts between Indians and Europeans." This observation challenges the romanticized view of pre-Columbian natives as peaceful and highlights the brutal realities of life in the Americas.

Challenging Historical Narratives

Steven Pinker, a prominent psychologist and author, argued that studies such as those by Lawrence Keeley and Steven LeBlanc challenge the notion of pre-state societies as peaceful. Keeley's book, "War Before Civilization," and LeBlanc's "Constant Battles" provide significant data on the violence that pre-Columbian societies experienced.

Pinker's findings suggest that inter-tribal warfare was common and often more destructive than conflicts with Europeans. However, these histories also highlight the resilience and strategic adaptability of indigenous peoples.

Overall, the nature of interactions between Native American tribes reflected a complex interplay of violence and cooperation. These relationships were often driven by the need for survival, personal gain, and social stability. The dissolution of Aztec dominance through alliances with the Spanish and other indigenous groups marked a significant shift in the political and social landscape of the Americas.

Understanding the intricacies of these interactions is crucial for a comprehensive historical narrative that acknowledges both the brutal and the strategic aspects of pre-Columbian life.