Ancient Turkic Languages: Connections with Persian and Arabic

The Turkic languages, including ancient Turkic languages, form a close-knit linguistic family that stands distinct from other language families such as Indo-Iranian (to which Persian belongs) and Semitic (to which Arabic belongs). Despite this fundamental distinction, ancient Turkic languages share notable similarities with Persian and Arabic due to historical and cultural interactions. This article explores these connections through lexical borrowing, shared features due to contact, cultural and literary convergence, and phonetic similarities.

Lexical Borrowing

The influence of Persian on ancient Turkic languages became significant during the early Islamic era. Many Turkic languages borrowed heavily from Persian, particularly in vocabulary related to administration, literature, and culture. However, this influence was not immediately significant; early Turkic inscriptions from the Gokturk and Uyghur periods show minimal Persian influence. As Turkic peoples came under Persianate empires like the Samanids and later the Seljuks, the linguistic influence increased.

Similarly, the adoption of Islam saw Arabic contributing significantly to Turkic languages, particularly in religious, scientific, and philosophical terminology. This influence became more evident in later stages of ancient Turkic, such as the language used by the Karakhanids. Examples of Persian words that entered early Turkic languages include bazar for "market" and divan for "council," while Arabic contributed words like ilm for "knowledge" and ikma for "wisdom" during the Islamic period.

Shared Features Due to Contact

Despite the significant grammatical differences between Turkic languages and Persian and Arabic, prolonged contact led to certain shared features in syntax and phraseology. These shared features arose from the integration of Persian and Arabic loanwords into Turkic syntax, resulting in bilingual glosses or hybrid expressions combining Turkic syntax with Persian or Arabic lexicon.

For example, Old Turkic texts written after the spread of Islam contain bilingual glosses or hybrid expressions that combine Turkic syntax with Persian or Arabic lexicon. This indicates the linguistic adaptation and integration of different civilizations during periods of cultural exchange.

Cultural and Literary Convergence

The Kutadgu Bilig, a notable piece of literature written in the Karakhanid language, a Middle Turkic language, demonstrates significant Persian influence in its themes and style. This literary work reflects the Persianate court culture of the time, showcasing the cultural convergence between Turkic and Persian languages and literatures.

Additionally, the transition from using the Old Turkic script, such as the Orkhon script, to the Arabic script after the Islamic conversion highlights the adoption of scripts from neighboring civilizations. This adoption was not just at the level of script but also at the level of language and literary conventions, further emphasizing the cultural and literary convergence between Turkic and Arabic languages.

Phonetic Similarities

Although Turkic phonology is distinct from that of Persian and Arabic, many Persian loanwords adapted well into Turkic phonetics. Similarly, Turkic speakers adopted many Arabic sounds when borrowing religious and scientific terms. This phonetic adaptation underscores the adaptability of Turkic languages and their capacity to integrate sounds from other language families.

Examples of phonetic adaptation include the adoption of bazar, divan, ilm, and ikma into Turkic languages, all of which have roots in Persian and Arabic. These words demonstrate how Turkic languages incorporated loanwords without altering their phonetic structure, thus enriching their lexicon and grammar.

In conclusion, while ancient Turkic languages such as Old Turkic (Gokturk and Uyghur) originally had little in common with Persian or Arabic, centuries of contact—particularly after the Islamic expansion—led to significant absorption of elements from these languages, especially in terms of vocabulary and cultural practices. These influences became more pronounced in Middle Turkic languages and subsequent developments, such as Ottoman Turkish, further demonstrating the rich interplay between different civilizations and their respective languages.